Nurulhuda
Mohd Sukri, Nur Hidayah Ismail, Amirmudin Udin
Department of Technic and Engineering,
University Technology of Malaysia,
81310 Skudai, Johore
nhuda_80@yahoo.com; desertrose_8481@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
In this paper, the
scope is focusing on women who have increasingly become more involved in the
workforce especially in technical and vocational area. Paid employment of women
has shifted from primarily traditional female-oriented jobs to more
non-traditional, and previously male-oriented careers. Women’s participation in
the workforce has led to the study of career aspirations of women. Career
aspirations are influenced by factors such as gender, socio-economic status,
race, parents’ occupation and education level, and parental expectations. This
review of literature presents an overview of women’s participation in the
workforce and the progress of women’s career development and career aspirations
in technical and vocational area.
KEYWORDS: Gender, Women, Technical and Vocational
Area, Career Aspiration
1. INTRODUCTION
Recent years, have seen notable progress on issues of
gender in standard-setting and to some extent application of those standards
through international and domestic legislation and jurisprudence, in
institutional programming and development.
The issue of gender impurity in Technical and
Vocational Education (TVE) and labour force is complex. Several studies found
that gender inequality exists in certain sectors of the economy. Women are
still concentrated in certain types of job. The imbalance may be due to
problems associated with the inability to make decision, the lack of
information about self and career, and the pressure from parents and peers. In
addition, gender ideology may play an important role in maintaining the
inequality between women and men, particularly in the labour market.
When talking about gender, most people assume that the
researchers are only looking at women issues. This is a wrong assumption. It is
also a gender issue if we discuss about the lack of male students in some of
the Malaysian universities. However, in the field of technical and vocational
education, the gender issue is mostly associated with the lack of women’s
participation in the technical and vocational sector. Following the need to
increase knowledge and skills as well as the movement towards a high intensity
human capital, the demand towards highly-skilled and multi-skilled employees
will increase. Therefore, women need to be given more training opportunities to
acquire new and most advanced skills as well as ones that fit the industrial
needs. Further, to face the rapid change in technology that requires new
skills, women have to be given more opportunities for retraining. Women need to
be provided with more education and training opportunities to fulfil the
knowledge-based economic demand and also to assist their mobility to
higher-paid jobs.
2. GENDER
ISSUES IN EDUCATION SECTOR AND CAREER CHOICE
The study of gender in TVET is seldom conducted in
Malaysia since most of the studies focus on the discussion about gender in
general. According to Noran Fauziah (1987) in Ramlee et al. (2010), at certain
age, teenagers begin to think about their future career and it is at this stage
that they will make an initial decision about career. They begin to think about
their ability and interest to be suited to a certain working role and begin to
make a realistic plan.
Shamsulbahriah (1989) found that gender inequality
exists in the process of economic development of Malaysia. Majority of the
women are still concentrated in the same type of job. She argued that gender
ideology has played an important role in maintaining the inequality between
women and men, particularly in the labour market. Noor Rahmah (2005) stated
that jobs that are suitable for women include teacher, doctor and clerk because
of the characteristics in a woman such as patient, gentle, attentive and
motherly.
Law (1991) in Ramlee et al. (2010) found that male and
female students in Form Four have a high aspiration towards careers which are
traditionally classified according to their respective gender. Most females are
found to portray themselves as adults, wives and mothers. The males on the
other hand portray themselves in terms of their vocational interests. Females
are interested in jobs that require direct relationship with the public such as
nursing, taking care of children, teaching or doing social work. Males on the
other hand, prefer mechanical area. According to Siti Hamisah (2005), most
women who are involved in the area of engineering are more interested in civil,
electrical and chemical engineering. This is because these fields of
engineering do not require physical strength and a more conducive working
environment for women. Rohany (1981) studied the association between gender and
interest in career found that male students in Malaysian universities are more
interested in scientific/engineering, business, and skill-related jobs. In
contrast, female students are inclined towards social oriented jobs.
Gender imbalance in the Public Higher Education
Institution (PHEI) with the number of female students surpass the number of
male students is not unusual. This phenomenon did not only occur in Malaysia
but also in other countries like Canada, United States of America, Saudi
Arabia, Australia and New Zealand. According to statistic by Ministry of Higher
Education, the number of students for entrant into PHEI in year 2011 consist
only 73,902 male students compared to 114,864 female students. However, if we
look at the student entry in technical and vocational institutions, it is quite
different where the number of male students exceeds the number of female
students. In 2011, the number of male students in training institute under the
Manpower Department exceeds the number of female students which is 7824 male
students and 1746 female students. This situation also occurs in the technical
fields in university or college. Female students’ entry into technical and
vocational institutions such as Polytechnics and Community Colleges is still
low and needs to be increased. In 2011, there are 20,924 male students compare
to 18,654 female students for entrant into Polytechnics and 6568 male students
compare to 4121 female students for entrant into Community Colleges in 2010. In
Form Four, students begin to think about their future career that they are
interested in. In general, female students are more inclined towards the
academic areas while male students are more interested in vocational fields.
However, few women are working in technical and
vocational fields. The lack of women’s involvement in the field may be due to
“sex bias” or “stereotype”. “Sex bias” and “stereotype” that could limit their
career choice. Female students in vocational education are often directed to
jobs such as secretary or beautician while male students are placed in various
skilled or semi-skilled industries. According to Weiler (1997) in Ramlee et
al.(2010), the traditional theory does not take into account the career choice,
the preparation and the working world for women. Weiler (1997) also stated that
there are five aspects that influence women’s career development, namely their
knowledge in the working world, family factor, environment, socialisation
effect and effect from the nation.
3. FACTORS
INFLUENCING women PARTICIPATION IN TECHNIC AND VOCATIONAL FIELD
The lack of women’s participation in non-traditional
career occurs because women often face gender discrimination, sexual
disturbance at work and obstacle to get a high position. Based on the study by
Norhazizi (2008) in Ramlee et al. (2010), the factors that hinder female
students from taking certain technical fields can be summarised as: (a)
technical field is a field that requires its workers to have high physical and
mental endurance and durability, (b) there is a lack of encouragement from
family, peers, and teachers, (c) female students seldom be given a chance to
prove that their capability is equal to men, (d) female students are lacking
confidence in certain fields, and (e) the gentleness in them causes them to be
timid to try.
Other than that, several factors are identified as problems
faced by working women in all over the world including Malaysia :-
3.1 Increasing participation of women in the
workforce
Women are highly important contributors to the
country’s economic and social development. Over the years women participation
in the economy has increased rapidly and they constitute almost half of the
total population. Since 1990, women’s participation in the labour force has
increased enormously. Even though Malaysia is a newly industrializing country,
its female labour force participation rate compares favorably with those of the
industrialized countries of the Asia and Pacific region. Women’s labour force participation
rate has increased over the years, but is still significantly lower than that
of men. In 1999, women’s labour force participation rate was 44.2 percent
compared to men, 83.4 percent. According to the Department of Statistics
Malaysia, women’s rate of participation in the labour force was 46.1 percent in
2010. However in year 2011, according to the new registrants registered with
the Labour Department by gender, women’s was 55.5 percent compared to men, 45.5
percent.
3.2 Level and quality of education
Education is an important aspect of human resource
development. The rise in labour force
participation by women has also resulted from the increased educational access
and achievement of women in the region, particularly at the secondary level, during
the past two decades. The girl’s rate at tertiary level has increased from 0.5
percent in 1979 to 4.9 percent in 1991. Number of female students has increased
in areas such as medicine, engineering and architecture. Most of the space and
opportunity in high school were more monopolized by the women. In fact, the
success of many female students are able to acquire the outstanding
achievements over the years is also a clear indication that the country's
education system achieve its goals.
Overall increase in women education’s level appears to
be one of the main factors of women contribution in labour force. Education is
essential to the improvement of women’s living standards and to allow them to
take a more active part in the decision making process within the family, the
community, the place of paid work and the political area. In 1995, women made
up 49.5 percent of the enrollment of students at government-assisted
universities. Half of women labour force possessed secondary education and 11
percent had tertiary education in 1995. Aminah Ahmad (2000), said that the
involvement of women in education is very encouraging but there still
segregation by gender in secondary education, vocational and technical schools
and in higher education, particularly at the Polytechnic. In the process of
education, girls and boys choose their subjects were 'femininity' and
'masculinity'. This selection makes further education inequality in our
society.
Another factor that might induce more female to get
involve in labour force is seems to be related to the attitude of the family
towards women. A study of selected successful career women in Malaysia, for
example, revealed that changing attitudes of parents and husbands towards a
more positive trend were perceived to be related to higher educational
attainment of women which in turn could influence women’s participation in the labour
force.
3.3 Lower fertility and postponement of age
at marriage
The increase in the labour force participation rate of
women in Malaysia could to a certain extent be explained by the decline in
fertility rate from 3.9 in 1982 to 3.3 children per woman in 2001. The decline
in fertility rate could in turn be trace to the rise in the average age at
marriage thus reducing the span of active reproductive life. In 1980, women are
marrying at an average age of 23.5 years, and in 1991 their age marriage
increased to 24.7. This mean age at first marriage continue to increase as in
2000, it was 25.1 and at the age of 25.3 in 2004. The postponement of age at marriage
among women led to the postponement in giving birth to the first child. The
most important determinant of fertility is women’s education.
As primary education is becoming universal and more
women are pursuing higher education, family size can be expected to drop
further. Therefore, the highest female labour force participation in within the
age group of 20 to 24, coinciding with the end of schooling age and before the
age of marriage. Hence the age of marriage together with fertility bears a
relationship with female labour force participation. The increase in the female
labour force participation may be attributable to improving economic incentives
in employment and policies favouring the employment of women. In addition, the
combined effects of improved maternal and child health care, access to family
planning services, increased years of schooling, leading to arise in the
average age at marriage, have allowed women to take advantage of the increased
employment opportunities. Postponement of marriage from age 22.3 in 1970 to age
24.7 in 1991, and longer intervals between children has enabled more women of
all ages to enter and remain in the workforce.
3.4 Lack of technical and managerial skills
or training for women.
Although gender gap in lower education
enrollment has been closed, there is gender stereotyping in the course
selection in higher education, leading to the gender segregation in
occupational sectors and the gender hierarchies in occupational distribution.
This is largely linked to the cultural ideology, which associates women with
their reproductive role,
3.5 Disadvantaged positions of women farmers
in terms of access to resource and services.
Despite their significant role in
agriculture, they have been largely ignored in the government’s programs until
recently, and the effects of the current programs focusing on income-generating
activities such as food processing and handicrafts remain to be seen. In this
case, women’s low earning can be attributed to lifetime choices between work
and family formation and to employment discrimination.
Since women usually have a greater role than men in
caring for the family, they may invest less in their own education and may work
for shorter periods and in occupations that require fewer hours or less effort
than men. This combined with interruptions in labour-force participation limits
women’s access to better jobs and promotions. Furthermore, employers, in turn,
may invest less in nurturing women’s skills through training or education
because women are expected to drop out of the labour force while they are
raising young children or, in many circumstances, to stop all work outside the
home once they are married.
4
CONCLUSION
Much progress has been achieved in the past few decades
in narrowing the gender gap in most countries. It can be shown in the
developments in women’s roles, both in absolute and relative terms, in the
major socio-economic aspects of the country’s development: increasing rates of
female labour force participation, gains in productive activities of women and
their strengthened economic standing and their increased participation in
education. As in Malaysia, the impressive economic growth has been accompanied
by the greater participation of women in the formal workforce and in a range of
other activities. As a developing country, Malaysia has to prepare its labour
force to suit the needs of a knowledge-based economy to meet the future
challenges. A number of programs in human resource development were initiated
with emphasis on the inculcation of new skills. Training serves as one of the
means of developing human resources. In this regard, one of the major insights
of human capital theory is the observation that individuals can increase their
productivity not only through investment in formal education but also by
learning important work skills outside the formal school system. Viewed from
this perspective, women as active actors, in both the private and public
spheres should be trained with their male counterparts focusing not only on their
domestic role but also on their productive role. Even where education policies
appear to address gender inequity, attention to gender at the level of
governmental decision-making and resource-allocation is often still limited, if
it exists at all. While it is a step forward to say that a certain measure has
considered gender inequity, that this will actually happen is still not
necessarily the case..
5. RECOMMENDATION
Current vocational, career and technical education
programs, as well as the public assistance programs that intersect with them,
must invest in women as a vital necessity in the 21st century economy. Several
suggestions can be used as a guide to minimize gender inequality in TVE and
career choice.
i) State
and local education agencies must be held accountable for improving the
successful outcomes of women and girls in career and technical education
programs, especially in programs that are non-traditional for their gender and
lead to high-skill, high-wage employment.
ii) Funding
must be provided to develop and support programs at the secondary and
post-secondary levels that promote the exploration, enrolment, and retention in
education and training for non-traditional fields that are specifically
high-skill and high-wage. Female students must be given a full range of
options. Specifically, at the secondary level, career and technical programs
must introduce women and girls to a full range of post-secondary options.
iii)
Career
guidance and counselling must be provided to all students and delivered in an
extensive and fair manner that ensures students are receiving the most valuable
information that will lead to high-skill, high-wage careers in fields that may
be non-traditional.
iv) Career
guidance and counselling must utilize strategies to expose all students to full
and complete information regarding career options that lead to economic
self-sufficiency. To achieve this goal, career guidance counsellors should also
provide programs that help break down gender stereotypes.
v) National
and state occupational and employment information systems must provide
professional development, career information, and materials that support non-traditional
career awareness, recruitment, and retention for use by students, parents,
teachers, counsellors, and administrators.
vi)
Personnel
charged with preparing students for their educational and career choices must
receive ongoing training to ensure that female students exploring career and
technical education are provided comprehensive and unbiased information about
their full range of options. Counsellors must be trained not to track women
into “female dominated occupations,” and to develop strategies for working with
students pursuing non-traditional employment.
5.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to Dr. Amirmudin Bin Udin,
the lecturer, who has been guiding and preparing this conference article and his
cooperation in providing the necessary information for the preparation of the
study.
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